What is Laser Cutting? A Comprehensive Guide

Laser cutting is one of the most popular cutting technologies in countless manufacturing and fabrication processes. This highly accurate computer-controlled cutting is compatible with numerous materials and can perform complex cutting, drilling, engraving, and texturing operations. This article explores laser cutting, its capabilities, benefits and limitations, and the many applications of this versatile technology.

What is Laser Cutting 

Laser cutting is a computer numeric controlled (CNC) cutting technology that uses a laser to cut through material. In this technology, a laser cutting machine generates a high-energy laser beam. The machine directs the laser beam onto a workpiece using optics, vapourising, melting, or burning it on contact, effectively cutting the material. A computer controls the speed and direction of the laser based on a set of instructions. The computer is preprogrammed using G-Code, a specific set of instructions the machine must follow to produce the desired cuts.

Laser cutting technology exists in various forms that vary by the intensity and capability of the laser and the size of the laser cutting machine. Also known as laser cutters, laser cutting machines range from powerful industrial units capable of cutting through thick steel sheets to desktop laser machines limited to etching and engraving applications. Laser cutting can produce simple straight, curved, and diagonal cuts. It can also cut very complex intricate patterns. Furthermore, this technology is capable of engraving and etching. 

Laser cutting is compatible with numerous materials, including metals, plastics, wood, ceramic, fabric, leather, and foam. Depending on the laser intensity and material type, it can also cut through various material thicknesses. This technology is widely used for its speed, accuracy, and ability to create clean, precise cuts. Laser cutting technology can be combined or integrated with other technologies to enhance its capabilities.

How Does Laser Cutting Work?

Various types of laser cutting machines exist, with varying technologies, functionalities, and capabilities. However, they all follow the same working principles. Laser cutting technology works in the following steps.

1. Laser generation

The laser cutting machine generates a laser by exciting lasing material (also known as the gain medium) within a closed container to a higher energy state. The lasing material, which may be fluid or solid, is excited using high-voltage electrical discharge or energised radio frequency. This process causes the atoms of the lasing material to randomly emit photons (light particles) upon returning to the non-excited state. Different types of laser generation processes exist with variations such as lasing material (CO2, fibre, neodymium, etc.) and energising techniques. This is, in fact, the basis for the different types of lasers, as the lasers produced by different generation processes have different functionalities and capabilities.

2. Laser amplification

Using lenses, mirrors, and other optical elements, the machine concentrates the numerous incoherent photons to form a single, coherent, powerful laser beam. Fabricators can control the intensity of the laser beam by adjusting the energy input into the gain medium or the efficiency of the amplification process.

3. Laser focusing and direction

Following amplification, optics in the laser cutter direct the light beam towards a miniscule output nozzle (>0.32 mm), which focuses and intensifies the beam. The nozzle contains a lens that further concentrates the laser beam out of the nozzle and onto the workpiece.

4. Material Cutting

Depending on the material type, the laser beam cuts the workpiece on contact by melting, vapourising, or burning through the material. Operators can adjust the laser's intensity and reach to etch, engrave, or pierce through the material. The CNC cutting head, to which the nozzle is attached, moves in preprogrammed directions until the cut is complete. Laser cutters often incorporate assist gas that blows away molten or vapourised material and helps to reduce heat-affected zones. Depending on the cutting process and type of gas, cutting gas may directly assist in the cutting process by facilitating combustion. The machine directs the gas at the cutting zone through a nozzle around the laser beam.

Laser Cutting Techniques and Processes

Laser cutting is a highly versatile technology that has been adapted to several cutting techniques. While the different laser cutting techniques rely on lasers to achieve material separation or marking, they differ in how the laser interacts with the material to achieve this separation.

Laser cutting can be classified into different types based on how the laser interacts with the material to achieve cutting. These laser cutting types vary by process, material interaction, and suitable materials and applications. Based on this classification method, the types of laser cutting are as follows.

• Flame cutting
• Fusion cutting
• Vapourisation cutting
• Thermal stress cracking
• Vector scoring
• Stealth dicing

Flame cutting

Flame cutting utilises a reactive assist gas, such as oxygen, to facilitate cutting. The laser heats the material to its ignition temperature, and the reactive assist gas creates an exothermic reaction to aid cutting, effectively melting the material. Together, the laser and the reaction form a high-precision blow torch. Flame cutting is faster due to the additional heat generated by the reactive gas. Conversely, this laser cutting effect may create oxidised cut edges, leading to a slightly lower quality cut. Fabricators commonly apply flame laser cutting to carbon steels and other ferrous metals.

Fusion cutting

Fusion laser cutting is similar to flame cutting, with the difference being the type of assist gas. In fusion cutting, the laser melts the material, and an inert assist gas such as nitrogen or argon blows the molten material away. Using an inert assist gas is the key characteristic of this type of laser cutting. Since the gas is non-reactive to the process, it plays no direct role in the cutting but only serves to blow away molten material. Also known as melt and blow cutting, fusion laser cutting is slower but more accurate than its flame cutting counterpart. This cutting technique is commonly applied to stainless steel, aluminium, and non-ferrous metals.

Vapourisation cutting

In vapourisation cutting, also known as flame cutting, the laser raises the temperature of the material so fast that solid material vapourises on contact. There is no melting, and heat conduction is significantly minimised, leading to precise, narrow cuts. This laser cutting technique is suitable for thin materials with low thermal conductivities and low melting points, such as plastics, wood, and textiles. It is also compatible with very thin metal sheets.

Thermal Stress Cracking

Also known as fracture-controlled cracking, thermal stress cracking is a laser cutting technique in which a laser induces controlled thermal stress to create a crack that propagates along the desired cutting path. Compatible with brittle materials that typically crack under thermal stress, this process does not involve melting. Instead, a narrow laser beam focuses on a point in the material, causing it to heat up rapidly. The resulting temperature gradient causes the material to crack at that point. The laser then moves along the cut path at high speeds and in a very controlled manner, extending the crack and effectively cutting the material. Thermal stress cracking is suitable for brittle materials such as glass, ceramics, stone, and marble.

Vector scoring

Vector scoring is a laser cutting technique for etching and engraving material. In this technique, also called "vector marking" or "vector engraving", the laser follows a vector path to create fine, shallow lines on the material's surface. Unlike cutting, the laser doesn't penetrate the material fully. Instead, it alters or removes a thin layer on the surface.CNC controls the laser to follow a pre-defined vector path, defined using CAD or design software. Lower power settings and faster movement prevent the laser from cutting through the material. Depending on the material, the laser burns, melts or discolours the surface.

Stealth dicing

Stealth dicing is a laser cutting technique primarily used in semiconductor manufacturing, specifically for slicing ultrathin silicon wafers and other delicate materials. This technique process involves two key stages: laser irradiation and mechanical expansion. In the first stage, a specially tuned laser penetrates the material without altering its surface, creating internal modifications such as micro-cracks within specific layers. Stealth dicing achieves these hese internal changes without generating heat that could cause molten material or contamination. The second stage applies controlled mechanical stress to the material, causing it to fracture cleanly along the weakened internal zones. This method produces highly accurate cuts with minimal debris and no surface damage, making it an essential technology for clean and delicate manufacturing processes in industries like electronics and photonics.

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Types of Laser Cutting

Laser cutting technologies utilise different types of lasers. These lasers, which differ mainly by the lasing material and the laser excitation technique, vary in intensity, functionality, and capabilities. Laser cutting and laser cutting machines can be categorised according to their type of laser into the following:

• CO₂ laser cutting
• Nd:YAG Laser Cutting
• Fibre laser Cutting
• Diode laser cutting
• Excimer laser cutting

CO₂ laser cutting

CO₂ lasers are among the most widely used in laser cutting. These lasers utilise a gas mixture of carbon dioxide, nitrogen, helium, and sometimes hydrogen as the gain medium. The machine geenrates the laser beam by exciting the gas mixture using either DC (direct current) electrical discharge or, with technological advancements, RF (radio frequency) energy. These lasers operate at a wavelength of approximately 10.6 μm, making them highly effective for cutting and engraving non-metallic materials.

CO₂ lasers are general-purpose lasers suited for organic and non-metallic materials like wood, acrylic, paper, textiles, glass, plastics, and metals such as mild steel and aluminium. However, they require higher power levels and often assist gases like oxygen when cutting metals. CO₂ lasers offer excellent edge quality and smooth finishes, especially for non-metals, due to their ability to create clean vaporization cuts. Conversely, their efficiency in cutting reflective metals is limited compared to fibre lasers. Common applications include signage, packaging, medical devices, and decorative arts.

Nd:YAG laser cutting

Nd: YAG (neodymium-doped yttrium aluminium garnet) lasers are solid-state lasers that use a crystal of yttrium aluminium garnet (Y₃Al₅O₁₂) doped with neodymium ions as the gain medium. The neodymium ions are the active lasing material responsible for amplifying the light. The laser operates at a wavelength of 1.064 μm in the near-infrared spectrum, making it highly effective for cutting, welding, and engraving metals. 

Nd:YAG lasers can produce both continuous-wave and pulsed beams, making them versatile for cutting, drilling, and engraving. The pulsed mode is particularly useful for precisely cutting delicate materials, while the continuous mode is suitable for thicker sections. Nd:YAG lasers excel at cutting metals, including steel, aluminium, and titanium, and are commonly used in applications requiring deep penetration. Their ability to handle heat-sensitive materials makes them suitable for electronic and medical components. However, they are less energy-efficient than fibre lasers and have higher maintenance requirements due to the use of flash lamps or diode pumping systems.

Fibre laser cutting

Fibre lasers are solid-state lasers that use optical fibres doped with rare-earth elements (like ytterbium, Erbium, and Dysprosium) as the gain medium. The laser cutting process involves generating the laser beam in the optical fibre and transmitting it through flexible delivery systems. Fibre lasers, operating at a wavelength of approximately 1.06 μm, produce a highly concentrated beam capable of cutting reflective materials like aluminium, brass, and copper with ease. The smaller wavelength allows for better absorption by metals, leading to higher cutting speeds and efficiency compared to CO₂ lasers.

Fibre lasers are known for their long operational lifespan, high power density, and low operational costs. Applications include cutting thin to thick metals, marking, and micro-cutting in industries such as aerospace, automotive, and electronics. They are also suitable for precision cutting in high-speed industrial environments.

Diode laser cutting

Diode lasers are compact and energy-efficient systems that generate a laser beam directly from semiconductor diodes. Operating at wavelengths ranging from 800 to 980 nm (near-infrared), they are ideal for applications requiring lower power levels. While they are not typically used for cutting thick materials, diode lasers are excellent for thin sheet metals, plastics, and organic materials.

These lasers are known for their compact size, low operational costs, and ability to integrate into portable or small-scale devices. Their applications include engraving, marking, and light cutting in industries like electronics, packaging, and signage.

Excimer laser cutting

Excimer lasers operate at ultraviolet (UV) wavelengths, typically between 193 nm and 351 nm, using a gas mixture of noble gases (argon, krypton, or xenon) and halogens (fluorine or chlorine) as the gain medium. Their short wavelengths allow excimer lasers to cut with extreme precision, enabling cold ablation, which removes material without generating significant heat.

This characteristic makes excimer lasers ideal for applications in delicate or heat-sensitive materials like polymers, biological tissues, and thin films. Manufacturers widely use these lasers in medical device manufacturing, microelectronics, and photonics for tasks like cutting stents, patterning microchips, or shaping glass. On the other hand, they are unsuitable for thick materials due to their limited penetration depth.

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What Materials Can Lasers Cut?

Lasers are versatile tools that can cut a wide range of materials, depending on the laser type, power, and process parameters. The following are some of the materials that lasers can cut and others that are unsuitable for laser cutting, categorised by material type and their compatibility with various laser cutting technologies.

Metals

Lasers, especially fibre, Nd:YAG, and CO₂ lasers, are widely used to cut metals. Metal laser cutting often involves assist gases like oxygen, nitrogen, or argon for cleaner cuts and increased efficiency. Commonly laser cut metals include:

• Steel (mild, carbon, stainless): For industrial parts, construction materials, and machinery components.
• Aluminium: Easily cut with fibre lasers due to high reflectivity; used in aerospace, automotive, and electronics.
• Copper and Brass: Fiber lasers are effective due to their shorter wavelengths, which are absorbed better by reflective surfaces.
• Titanium: Popular in aerospace and medical industries for its strength and biocompatibility.
• Precious Metals (gold, silver, platinum): Used in jewellery and electronics industries

Plastics

Plastics are compatible with laser cutters. However, numerous types of plastics exist with widely varying characteristics. Therefore, while there are many plastics that are suitable for laser cutting, there are others that are incompatible due to the possibility of melting, warping, and the release of toxic fumes. Plastics that are suitable for laser cutting include:

• Acrylic/PMMA
• Delrin/POM
• Polyester
• Polyethylene
• Polycarbonate (Thin sheets)
• Mylar

On the other hand, plastics that are not suitable for laser cutting are as follows:

• ABS: Tends to catch fire, melt, and release toxic gases on heating.
• Polypropylene foam: Like ABS, this material is prone to catching fire and melting.
• PVC and Vinyl: These plastics release toxic, corrosive chlorine gases when heated.
• HDPE: HDPE is susceptible to combustion upon contact with the laser.

Wood

Laser cutting is compatible with various types of wood, with the primary applications being cutting and engraving. Laser cutting can cut through thin, less dense woods, creating intricate patterns and straight, simple cuts. This technology can also engrave and etch fine details onto wooden surfaces.

Glass and ceramics

Laser cutting techniques, such as thermal stress cracking, are great for cutting brittle materials like glass and ceramics. Cutting ceramic tiles is a common practical application. Etching glass and ceramics is another popular laser cutting application.

Fabric, textiles, and leather

CO₂ lasers typically out fabrics, textiles, and leather Laser cutting. Laser cutting, unlike traditional cutting methods that usually fray fabrics, creates clean cut edges without fraying or distortion. The laser’s focused heat seals the cut fabric on contact, enabling intricate designs and complex patterns. Laser cutting is compatible with natural textiles like cotton, silk, and wool and synthetic materials like polyester and nylon.

Other materials

Laser cutting is also compatible with paper, marble, stone, fibreglass, polymers, thin films, foils, and silicon wafers.

What can laser cutting do? Laser cutting operations

Laser cutting is a versatile and precise manufacturing process that offers a wide range of capabilities. While the terminology implies a focus on cutting, laser cutting is capable of several other operations. Common laser cutting capabilities and operations are as follows:

• Cutting
• Drilling
• Engraving
• Etching and marking
• Ablation
• Surface texturing

Understanding the diverse capabilities of laser cutting is vital for selecting the right operation for specific applications.

Cutting

This process involves cutting through a material section, primarily for separation. Laser cutting can precisely cut simple lines, as well as highly complex geometries and fine details. In addition, this technology can cut simple and intricate patterns, such as perforations, grills and meshes, floral patterns, and puzzle cuts.

Drilling

Laser cutting can create small, precise holes in materials by focusing the laser beam on a fixed point. This application is common in applications, such as PCB among others. Laser drilling is better suited for through holes.

Engraving

Engraving involves creating shallow, detailed markings on the surface of materials by removing a thin layer, often used for logos, patterns, or text. Laser cutters carry out this operation by adjusting the laser beam's intensity, reach, and speed. Laser cutting can engrave materials to various depths.

Etching and marking

Etching is similar to engraving but with more superficial penetration. This laser cutting operation is typically for decorative or identification purposes. Marking, a variant of this operation, involves permanently altering the surface appearance of materials (e.g., colour change, oxidation) for identification, traceability, or decorative purposes. Etching and marking are also used to create reference marks for subsequent processes like folding, assembly, or painting.

Ablation

Ablation is the process of selectively removing thin layers of material. Laser uses short, high-intensity laser pulses to vaporise or sublimate microscopic amounts of material, leaving the surrounding areas unaffected. This laser cutting capability is typically applied in coatings, paint stripping, or microfabrication.

Surface texturing

Laser surface texturing is the process of modifying the topography of a material's surface by creating patterns, grooves, or microstructures. This laser cutting capability leverages the precision of laser beams to vaporise or ablate small areas of material, resulting in a controlled texture. Laser cutters control the depth and pattern of the texture by adjusting the laser’s focus, power, and pulse duration.

Applications of Laser Cutting

Various industries use laser cutting technology in numerous industrial and domestic application. This widespread usage results from the technology's versatility, among other benefits.

Sheet metal fabrication

Sheet metal cutting is one of the most common industrial laser cutting applications. This process is used in sheet metal fabrication to cut through metal sheets to achieve specific patterns, dimensions, or designs. Laser cutting is fast and accurate, as it utilises CNC for exact control. Furthermore, it produces a clean cut edge with a minimal kerf width of 0.1 - 0.3 mm. These characteristics make laser cutting the appropriate sheet metal cutting technology in many applications.

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Laser cutting is especially useful in precision sheet metal fabrication, where the accuracy of cuts is critical to the functionality and durability of sheet metal parts, as the process produces accurate cuts with clean edges. On the other hand, laser cutting is limited in the material thickness it can cut through. This technology can cut metal sheets up to a thickness of 30 mm. However, this may vary depending on the metal type. Laser cutting applications in sheet metal fabrication services cut across various industries, including automotive, aerospace, medical, construction, architecture, manufacturing, and electronics.

Tube and profile cutting

Fabricators commonly use laser cutting technology to cut cross-sections of tube and profile workpieces in the construction, manufacturing, and oil & gas industries. This laser cutting application cuts through workpieces before other fabrication processes, such as forming and assembly. For example, manufacturers use laser cutting to create channels or relief cuts that facilitate bending.

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laser cutting can also produce precise cuts, holes, and bevels in circular, square, or custom-shaped profiles. Tube and profile laser cutting is faster and more accurate than traditional sawing or drilling methods. Additionally, it supports batch processing, reducing lead times and increasing productivity.

Semiconductor and electronics manufacturing

Manufacturers use laser cutting for dicing, scribing, and drilling delicate silicon wafers in semiconductor fabrication. Stealth dicing, a specialised laser technique, enables precise cutting without creating debris or thermal damage, preserving the integrity of the material. This technique is essential for producing microchips, LEDs, and other semiconductor devices. The high precision of lasers ensures the accurate separation of components at microscopic scales. Laser ablation is also employed to remove thin films and layers during wafer processing.

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Furthermore, the electronics industry uses laser cutting to manufacture PCBs, flexible circuits, and thin films. They are also used to create perforations, scribe lines, and drill small holes for component placement. Lasers can cut intricate patterns and micro-scale components with high precision, which is essential for modern miniaturised electronics.

Packaging industry

In the packaging industry, manufacturers use lasers cutting and perforating materials like cardboard, plastic films, and flexible packaging materials. This technology enables the creation of custom shapes, easy-tear perforations, and vent holes. Laser cutting is ideal for high-speed production lines, ensuring consistent quality and reducing material waste. It is also employed to engrave branding elements, serial numbers, and decorative designs directly onto packaging materials and containers.

*Image of laser-engraved bottle 

Signage and displays

Laser cutting is used in signage production to create custom letters, logos, and intricate designs from acrylic, wood, and metals. It ensures precise cuts and smooth edges, making it ideal for backlit signs, 3D lettering, and decorative panels. Artists also use laser engraving to add detailed textures and branding elements to displays. The flexibility of laser cutting allows designers to produce unique and eye-catching signage with a fast turnaround time.

*Image of laser cut signpost 

Textiles and fashion

Laser cutting is revolutionising the fashion industry by enabling intricate designs and patterns on fabrics, leather, and synthetic materials. It provides clean, sealed edges that prevent fraying, making it ideal for cutting delicate fabrics like silk and synthetic textiles like polyester. In addition to cutting, lasers can engrave patterns on leather and customise designs for apparel, footwear, and accessories. The speed and precision of laser cutting have streamlined prototyping and mass production in the fashion industry.

*Image of laser-engraved textile

Jewellery and accessories

Laser cutting offers high precision and design flexibility in the jewellery industry. Jewellers use this process to cut intricate patterns in precious metals like gold, silver, and platinum for rings, pendants, and bracelets. Laser engraving adds fine details such as inscriptions, logos, or decorative motifs. The non-contact process ensures no deformation of delicate materials, while the speed of laser cutting allows for the rapid production of custom designs. 

Arts and crafts

Laser cutting is widely used in the arts and crafts industry to produce intricate designs and unique creations from various materials. It enables artists, crafters, and hobbyists to precisely cut or engrave wood, acrylic, paper, leather, fabric, and even thin metals. The process is ideal for creating custom shapes, detailed ornaments, stencils, decorative items, and engraving patterns, text, or images onto surfaces.

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One popular laser cutting arts and crafts application is creating personalised gifts, such as engraved photo frames, jewellery, and coasters. Artisans also use it for model-making, where precise cuts and detailed parts are essential, especially in architectural and diorama models. Furthermore, laser cutting allows for the production of intricate lace-like patterns on paper and fabric, often used in invitations, scrapbooking, and textile design.

Advantages of Laser Cutting

Laser cutting has many benefits and advantages, making it the preferred cutting method in several applications across numerous industries. These advantages include the following:

• Capabilities: Laser cutting is a highly capable technology with many functionalities. This technology can cut, drill, engrave, etch, ablate, and texture workpieces and surfaces with very high precision and accuracy. In addition, laser cutting produces minimal HAZ and kerf width. Laser cutting, being a non-contact cutting process, does not physically touch the material, preventing mechanical stress or deformation, especially in delicate or thin materials.
• Versatility: Laser cutting technology’s versatility is one of the primary reasons for its countless applications across various industries. This technology can be adapted to cut relatively thick steel of up to 30 mm, as well as ultra-light paper sheets. Furthermore, various laser cutting techniques and cutting processes exist. There are also different types of lasers and laser cutting machines, which vary by laser generation and have varying characteristics and capabilities.
• Material compatibility: Laser cutting is compatible with a plethora of materials of various thicknesses, including metals, plastics, foam, stone, ceramic, glass, fabrics, textiles, and paper.
• Accuracy and precision: CNC laser cutting delivers exceptional precision, allowing for intricate designs and tight tolerances. Furthermore, laser cutting produces clean, burr-free cut edges and creates a minimal kerf width. In addition, this technology produces minimal heat in the surrounding areas, preventing warping. This cutting technology is ideal for applications requiring detailed geometries, complex shapes, or highly precise fabrication.
• Speed and efficiency: Compared to traditional cutting methods, laser cutting is faster and can handle both prototyping and mass production with ease. The neatness of cuts further enhances this speed by eliminating the need for post-processing.
• Integration: Laser cutting technology can easily be combined and integrated with other technologies for increased functionality. For example, laser cutters with 5-axis CNC cutting heads exist. There are also laser automation technologies that can incorporate laser cutting into existing production lines.

Limitations of Laser Cutting

While laser cutting has numerous beneficial characteristics, it also has some inherent limitations. These limitations are as follows:

• Material thickness constraints: Laser cutting struggles to cut metals thicker than 30 mm. Such thicknesses would require extended exposure to the laser, which can result in melting, burning, and significant warping.
• Material limitations: Laser cutting is not very suitable for cutting highly reflective materials as laser technology is optics-based. Furthermore, certain materials, such as vinyl and PVC, release toxic fumes when heated, making them unsuitable for laser cutting.
• Safety risks: High-power lasers can pose safety hazards, such as burns or eye damage, if operators do not take necessary precautions.
• High cost: While hobbyist laser cutters can cost as low as £500 for engraving machines (Source), laser cutting machines can range from £5,000 for desktop units to £50,000 above for industrial units.
• Power consumption: Laser cutting is often associated with relatively high power consumption, particularly when cutting thick or dense materials. The energy usage depends on the type of laser (e.g., CO2, fibre, or Nd:YAG), the machine's power rating, and the specific application. For instance, high-powered industrial laser cutters may require up to 20 kilowatts of power.

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